What this rule is about: the passive for textual cohesion
One reason to choose the passive is textual cohesion: we want to continue talking about the same subject, even when different people perform the actions. In the passive, the subject that undergoes the action can remain the subject of the next sentence.
Look at several sentences together: what is this paragraph about, and what do you want to say about it next? The passive is a useful way to preserve the theme, but it is not necessary to make all the sentences alike.
Both passages below are grammatically correct. The passive version focuses attention on the mosaic; the active version names the people involved in the work more clearly. The choice depends on what matters more for this paragraph.
The mosaic was uncovered in 2021. It was cleaned over the winter and was put on display last June.
The mosaic was uncovered in 2021. It was cleaned over the winter and was put on display last June.
The mosaic remains the subject of all three predicates: the reader never changes their point of view.
Builders uncovered the mosaic in 2021. A restoration workshop cleaned it over the winter and the museum put it on display last June.
Builders uncovered the mosaic in 2021. A restoration workshop cleaned it over the winter and the museum put it on display last June.
Each sentence has its own subject: builders, workshop, museum. It is grammatically flawless, but the paragraph’s theme is pushed into the background each time.
Known information at the beginning, new information at the end
In neutral exposition, it is often useful to begin with information that is already known and then add new information. This helps the reader see the connection, but it is not a required order for every sentence.
The passive can put a familiar subject at the beginning and a new agent or important detail closer to the end. Beginning with new information is also possible, for example when the focus changes or a contrast is needed.
Known information (the paragraph’s theme) as the subject + be + V3 + new information (an adverbial, detail, or by-phrase) at the end
- subject / S —
- The grammatical subject: who or what the clause is about; the verb agrees with it. In The book was written, the book is the subject, although someone else does the action.
- V3 / past participle —
- The third verb form: worked, gone, seen. Used after have/has or in the passive, for example; it is not always the same as V2.
The bid was submitted in October. It was rejected in December by a board that had never met the team.
The bid was submitted in October. It was rejected in December by a board that had never met the team.
Known information (the bid) comes first; the most interesting point—that the board had never met the team—comes at the end.
The bid was submitted in October. A board that had never met the team rejected it in December.
The bid was submitted in October. A board that had never met the team rejected it in December.
Now the board comes first, while December remains at the end. This version is possible if we want to focus on the board; it still links the sentences to the bid.
The theme chain: how the previous sentence is picked up
To show the connection, you can repeat the name of the subject, use it/they, or pick up the previous action with a related noun. For example, photographed leads to those photographs in the next sentence.
The third method is especially useful in descriptions of processes: the result of one step becomes the theme of the next sentence. In this way, the text moves forward without losing cohesion.
The wreck was located by a survey team in 2016. It was photographed in detail over the next two summers. Those photographs were then used to build a three-dimensional model.
The wreck was located by a survey team in 2016. It was photographed in detail over the next two summers. Those photographs were then used to build a three-dimensional model.
First, the theme is named in full; then it is referred to with it. Those photographs picks up the result of the photography mentioned earlier, even though the word photographs did not appear before.
The complaints were logged in a shared file. They were reviewed at the end of every week.
The complaints were logged in a shared file. They were reviewed at the end of every week.
A plural theme is picked up by the pronoun they, not it; the auxiliary verb also has plural agreement.
The form that keeps the chain together
The passive requires be in the appropriate form and V3. Make be agree with the current subject: the sample was, the samples were. In a new complete sentence, do not omit the auxiliary verb; in coordinated predicates, it can sometimes be shared: It was cleaned and repaired.
Then and finally can conveniently be placed at the beginning or inside the verb group: It was then moved. Longer adverbials often appear at the beginning or end, but other positions are possible: It has since then been used as a museum. Choose a natural word order; these linking expressions do not themselves require question inversion.
The material uses British spelling (analysed, digitised, organised). The American forms analyzed, digitized, organized are equally correct.
Theme-subject + be (in the required tense) + (then / later) + V3 + the rest of the sentence
- subject / S —
- The grammatical subject: who or what the clause is about; the verb agrees with it. In The book was written, the book is the subject, although someone else does the action.
- V3 / past participle —
- The third verb form: worked, gone, seen. Used after have/has or in the passive, for example; it is not always the same as V2.
The lighthouse was automated in 1987 and was left without a keeper for the first time. Since then it has been checked by a team that visits twice a year.
The lighthouse was automated in 1987 and was left without a keeper for the first time. Since then it has been checked by a team that visits twice a year.
The theme does not change. The Past Simple identifies the automation in 1987; the Present Perfect covers the checks from then until now.
The file was renamed on Monday. It was then given a new reference number.
The file was renamed on Monday. It was then given a new reference number.
Then comes between was and given; the word order remains declarative, without inversion.
The by-phrase at the end: how to name the agent without breaking the chain
If the agent is important, you can name them with by while keeping the item as the grammatical subject. A long or new by-phrase is often convenient at the end, but its position depends on which information you want to highlight.
The neutral order is the participle, followed by the by-phrase and other adverbials in a natural sequence. Use this model as a starting point for your own examples. Do not turn it into an absolute ban on other stylistically highlighted positions.
The painting hung in a corridor for forty years. It was identified as a lost portrait by a visiting curator.
The painting hung in a corridor for forty years. It was identified as a lost portrait by a visiting curator.
The theme (the painting) comes first; new and important information about the curator comes at the end.
The bridge was designed in the 1930s. It was rebuilt after the war by engineers from three different countries.
The bridge was designed in the 1930s. It was rebuilt after the war by engineers from three different countries.
The most unexpected detail—the international team—comes at the end, where it has the strongest impact.
When the chain does not need to be maintained
If a new theme begins, it is natural to make it the subject of the next sentence. Do not continue a passive chain mechanically. A refund was applied for by more than sixty passengers may be appropriate in a text about refunds, but More than sixty passengers applied for a refund puts the passengers more clearly in the foreground.
Pay attention to the meaning of the verb. Arrive, happen, and disappear do not form passives in their usual meanings; the theme can be preserved with an active sentence. Collapse meaning “to fall down” is also intransitive, although it has other transitive uses. Some verbs with prepositions allow the passive: The issue was talked about.
Readability is more important than the number of passive sentences. Several passive sentences may be appropriate in a continuous process description; in another text, it may be more natural to alternate different structures.
The evening ferry was cancelled again on Sunday. Dozens of drivers spent the night in their cars at the terminal.
The evening ferry was cancelled again on Sunday. Dozens of drivers spent the night in their cars at the terminal.
The theme really changes from the ferry to the drivers—an active sentence is more natural here than a forced passive.
The footbridge collapsed during the storm and was repaired the following spring.
The footbridge collapsed during the storm and was repaired the following spring.
Collapse means “to fall down” here, so the active voice is used. The same subject links the active collapsed and the passive was repaired.
How this differs from other reasons for choosing the passive
The closest related reason is that the agent is unknown, unimportant, or obvious. In that case, the decision is made within one sentence: is there any point in naming someone? Here, the decision is made between sentences: does the paragraph remain about the same subject? Very often, both reasons apply, but the tests are different.
A simple diagnostic: cover up the neighboring sentences—and if the argument “the passive is appropriate here” disappears, cohesion is the reason at work. In the example “It was discovered in 2019,” the sentence by itself is no better than “A student discovered it in 2019”; it becomes advantageous only next to the preceding sentence about the same manuscript.
A second related topic is the general preference for the active voice for concision and directness. We do not discuss it here: our criterion is narrower and concerns only preserving the theme.
The car was broken into overnight.
The car was broken into overnight.
The sentence on its own focuses attention on the car and does not name a specific agent. Without context, we cannot say for certain whether the agent is unknown or simply not named.
The car had been parked outside the office all week. It was broken into overnight.
The car had been parked outside the office all week. It was broken into overnight.
The same sentence in a chain: now the passive also keeps the car as the theme of both sentences.
Applying this to speech: a quick paragraph check
Before writing a paragraph, name its theme in one word. Then look at the beginning of each sentence: how many times does the theme appear there, either directly or as a pronoun? If it does not appear in consecutive sentences and the subjects are different each time, try the passive.
In conversation, you can pick up a named subject with it or they and add new information. If the new agent is more important, starting with that agent is also natural. Compare both versions for meaning.
— Do you know what happened to the old piano? — It was moved to the church hall last year and it is still played there every Sunday.
— Do you know what happened to the old piano? — It was moved to the church hall last year and it is still played there every Sunday.
The reply picks up the other speaker’s theme with the pronoun it instead of beginning with a new subject (the parish, they).
Common mistakes
Incorrect:The manuscript was discover in a private archive in 2019.
Correct:The manuscript was discovered in a private archive in 2019.
After be, use the third form of the verb: discovered, not the base form discover.
Incorrect:The old benches were taken away in March. They was repaired the following month.
Correct:The old benches were taken away in March. They were repaired the following month.
The theme remains the same (the old benches → they), so the auxiliary verb must also remain plural: were, not was.
Incorrect:The file was renamed on Monday. It then given a new reference number.
Correct:The file was renamed on Monday. It was then given a new reference number.
The auxiliary was is missing from the second sentence in the chain; given is a participle and cannot function as the predicate on its own.
Incorrect:The footbridge collapsed during the storm and was repair the following spring.
Correct:The footbridge collapsed during the storm and was repaired the following spring.
The passive in the second part requires was + V3 repaired. The first action, collapsed, is active; the bridge remains the same theme.
Incorrect:Then was it moved to the new archive.
Correct:Then it was moved to the new archive.
After then, the word order in a declarative sentence is ordinary: the subject comes before the auxiliary verb, with no inversion.
Incorrect:The exhibition was organised last year, and it has been visit by thousands of people since.
Correct:The exhibition was organised last year, and it has been visited by thousands of people since.
After has been, use the third form visited, not the base form visit.
Incorrect:The painting was identify as a lost portrait by a visiting curator.
Correct:The painting was identified as a lost portrait by a visiting curator.
In the passive, use the third form identified after was. By a visiting curator names the agent who did the identifying.