The intuition: short before long
English sentences tend to place heavier constituents towards the end. When two elements follow a verb, a shorter one often comes first and the longer one second. This principle is called end-weight.
A sentence is easier to process when the reader encounters short elements before a long, complex passage. A long direct object may therefore shift rightwards, past a short constituent.
verb + SHORT constituent, such as to…, in… or on… + HEAVY object phrase
- verb / V —
- A word for an action or state, such as work or be. The pattern determines its form.
- object / O —
- Who or what an action affects: in I read a book, a book is the object.
The nurse handed to the patient a folder containing every result from the past three years.
The nurse handed to the patient a folder containing every result from the past three years.
The short phrase to the patient immediately follows the verb, while the long description of the folder comes last.
They carried into the hall a table made from a single piece of oak that had fallen in a storm.
They carried into the hall a table made from a single piece of oak that had fallen in a storm.
The long description of the table, including a relative clause, comes at the end.
The nurse handed it to the patient.
The nurse handed it to the patient.
Here the object is a pronoun. It is not heavy, so it immediately follows the verb.
The form: what actually moves
The whole direct object phrase shifts. The verb stays in place, while a shorter constituent, such as a prepositional phrase or an expression of place or time, comes between the verb and the object.
Typical short constituents include to the board, in the margin, on the table and with the letter, as well as a short adverb such as upstairs. Weight involves complexity as well as length: a relative clause, a list or long modifiers can make a phrase heavy.
subject + verb + short constituent + long object phrase
- subject / S —
- The grammatical subject: who or what the clause is about; the verb agrees with it. In The book was written, the book is the subject, although someone else does the action.
- verb / V —
- A word for an action or state, such as work or be. The pattern determines its form.
- object / O —
- Who or what an action affects: in I read a book, a book is the object.
The company sold to a small family firm the factory that it had owned since the 1950s.
The company sold to a small family firm the factory that it had owned since the 1950s.
The recipient phrase with to is relatively short, while the object contains a relative clause.
He wrote in the margin a comment that nobody could read.
He wrote in the margin a comment that nobody could read.
The short place phrase in the margin comes first.
Our guide pointed out to the group every building that had survived the fire.
Our guide pointed out to the group every building that had survived the fire.
The phrasal verb pointed out stays together. To the group precedes the long object.
Weight is relative, and the shift is optional
Weight is relative: the object’s length and complexity are compared with the other constituent. Short unstressed objects usually remain beside the verb. Order also depends on information focus and context, not just word count.
The unshifted order remains grammatical even with a long object. Shifting is a way to improve processing. There is no fixed length threshold, and reading a borderline sentence aloud can help you judge its balance.
She passed the note to the woman who was sitting at the back of the room.
She passed the note to the woman who was sitting at the back of the room.
The recipient phrase is heavier here, so it comes last, while the object immediately follows the verb.
He lent his bike to Omar.
He lent his bike to Omar.
Both constituents are short, so no shift is needed.
I explained to my parents why the flight had been delayed for six hours and what the airline had offered us.
I explained to my parents why the flight had been delayed for six hours and what the airline had offered us.
A long clausal complement is normally placed at the end after the short recipient phrase.
Limits: pronouns, short phrases and verb particles
An ordinary unstressed pronoun has very little weight, so it follows the verb directly: sent it to Max, not sent to Max it. Short noun phrases likewise normally do not need a shift.
With separable transitive phrasal verbs, an unstressed pronoun goes between the verb and particle: wrote it down. A short noun phrase can go on either side of the particle, while a long phrase usually follows it: wrote down every address that…. This does not apply to inseparable combinations such as look after.
I found them in the cupboard.
I found them in the cupboard.
The pronoun follows the verb, and the phrase with in comes next.
She wrote it down.
She wrote it down.
With a pronoun object, the particle follows the pronoun.
She wrote down every address that the driver had mentioned during the trip.
She wrote down every address that the driver had mentioned during the trip.
The long phrase follows the particle.
He took his coat off.
He took his coat off.
A short noun phrase can also go before the particle.
Two patterns for giving: a to-phrase and double objects
Many verbs allow both gave Sam the book and gave the book to Sam. When the direct object is long, the double-object construction already places it last, so no shift is needed.
With the to-pattern, the long object can follow the to-phrase: gave to Sam the book that…. Do not automatically transfer the double-object construction to other verbs. Standard patterns taught here include explain something to someone, suggest something to someone and donate something to an organisation.
The bank lent the couple enough money to buy the cottage and repair the barn.
The bank lent the couple enough money to buy the cottage and repair the barn.
The double-object construction puts the long phrase last without a shift.
The bank lent to the couple enough money to buy the cottage and repair the barn.
The bank lent to the couple enough money to buy the cottage and repair the barn.
The same meaning with a shift: to the couple precedes the long phrase.
She suggested to the committee a plan that would cut costs by a third.
She suggested to the committee a plan that would cut costs by a third.
In this pattern with suggest, to introduces the recipient, and the long phrase follows it.
Focus, register and alternative strategies
The end of a sentence is often where the main new information appears, a principle called end-focus. Shifting frequently serves that purpose too: a short, familiar constituent appears earlier, while long, new information comes last.
The shift is especially familiar in written, formal and academic language. If a sentence becomes too heavy, split it into two, use a pronoun in the second sentence or recast it in the passive.
The report recommends to the council a set of measures that would reduce traffic in the old town.
The report recommends to the council a set of measures that would reduce traffic in the old town.
A formal report style, with long, new information at the end.
We have a problem. Three of the pumps that the contractor installed in May have already failed.
We have a problem. Three of the pumps that the contractor installed in May have already failed.
In conversation, long information is often given its own sentence.
The measures were proposed to the council by a working group that had spent two years studying traffic in the old town.
The measures were proposed to the council by a working group that had spent two years studying traffic in the old town.
The passive leaves the long description of the agent at the end, achieving end-weight without shifting an object.
The boundaries: what we are not practising here
Heavy noun phrase shift moves the WHOLE direct object rightwards past a shorter constituent. This distinguishes it from two related kinds of extraposition.
Subject-clause extraposition uses anticipatory it and places the clause later. Extraposition from a noun phrase separates only a postmodifier, such as a relative clause, from the rest of the phrase. Inversion after a place expression is another distinct construction.
It is clear that the plan will fail.
It is clear that the plan will fail.
Anticipatory it occupies the subject position and the clause appears later. Subject extraposition has its own rule.
A report appeared yesterday that criticised the plan.
A report appeared yesterday that criticised the plan.
Only the relative clause is separated from the noun phrase. This belongs to the rule on extraposition from a noun phrase.
Into the room walked a tall man.
Into the room walked a tall man.
This is locative inversion, not object shift.
Common mistakes
Incorrect:She sent to her brother it yesterday.
Correct:She sent it to her brother yesterday.
The ordinary pronoun object is not shifted to the end. It follows the verb directly.
Incorrect:He picked up it from the floor.
Correct:He picked it up from the floor.
A pronoun object of this separable phrasal verb goes between the verb and the particle.
Incorrect:The firm donated the school several computers.
Correct:The firm donated several computers to the school.
For the standard neutral pattern with donate, use donate something to someone. Do not transfer the double-object construction from give.
Incorrect:She described me the problems that had come up during the audit.
Correct:She described to me the problems that had come up during the audit.
Describe does not use this double-object pattern. To introduces the recipient, followed here by the long object phrase.
Incorrect:The firm explained the customers the new rules.
Correct:The firm explained the new rules to the customers.
Explain does not use this double-object pattern. Introduce the recipient with to.