Cohesion in Extended Writing

This/that + a summarising noun, these + a plural noun, such + a noun naming a category, and the former…the latter… for two previously named items let you refer back without repeating information word for word or leaving the reader to guess what you mean.

Published October 3, 2026

Referring back and connecting sentences

Returning to information already mentioned

Reference expressions—this, that, these, such, and the former…the latter…—let you return to information already mentioned without repeating it word for word or leaving the reader to guess what you mean.

Repetition sometimes improves clarity and sometimes makes a text cumbersome. This change or these measures can pick up a previous idea concisely. Pronouns such as it, this, and they are also appropriate when the reference is easy to understand.

Choosing the right reference expression—this/that/these/such/the former…the latter…—and an accurate summarising noun is central to natural cohesion in academic writing.

How to build it

this / that + precise noun; these + plural noun; such + a name for the type; the former / the latter — reference by order of mention

noun: A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.

The city repaved Main Street last spring. This project reduced traffic accidents at the intersection.

This project labels the street work concisely with one noun, without repeating repaved Main Street.

The clinic reduced no-show rates last year. Reduced no-show rates freed up appointment slots for other patients.

Repeating reduced no-show rates word for word in the second sentence sounds cumbersome compared with a reference expression such as this change.

When a noun makes the reference clearer

It can refer to an object or an understandable situation; it does not have to mean the nearest noun. However, if several interpretations are possible, this decision or this response makes the intended reference more explicit.

In that case, use this/that with a summarising noun that accurately names the whole event: this decision, that outcome, this delay.

If the previous sentence contains several possible noun candidates, bare it can become ambiguous; a reference noun removes that ambiguity.

The council cancelled the festival and refunded every ticket. This decision disappointed local vendors.

This decision summarises the council's whole action—cancelling and refunding—not just one of the two facts.

The airline rebooked stranded passengers and issued meal vouchers. This response eased some of the frustration.

This response clearly groups both actions as the airline's response. It could also refer to the situation, but would be less explicit.

This/that + a summarising noun: one action or fact

This/that + a singular noun refers back to one action, idea, or fact already mentioned. This is used when the event has just been mentioned and is still current; that can create some distance or return to something mentioned earlier in the text.

The summarising noun—change, decision, move, delay, response—should not be too general, like thing or issue. A precise noun immediately identifies the type of event.

Even when the previous sentence mentions several separate actions, the writer can present them AS ONE overall decision, such as an investment or restructuring. The singular then remains correct despite the several facts.

How to build it

this/that + singular noun → one action, idea, or fact already mentioned, or several actions presented as one decision

noun: A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.

The bakery switched to a new flour supplier. This switch improved the texture of its bread within weeks.

Switch is a precise noun, more informative than the general thing or change without further detail.

The magazine redesigned its layout and shortened its articles. That redesign attracted a noticeably younger readership.

That redesign treats both changes—the layout and article length—as ONE overall decision, so the singular remains appropriate.

These + a summarising noun: several facts

These + a plural noun is suitable when presenting several actions as separate changes: these changes. If they are grouped into one strategy, this strategy is possible. Number agrees with the chosen noun and the way the information is framed, not mechanically with the number of verbs in the previous sentence.

The most common technical error is leaving this before a plural noun, as in this changes. Another problem is reducing two independently important actions to a singular label when the writer intends to emphasise both actions together as separate steps.

The gym extended its opening hours and cut membership fees. These changes brought in dozens of new members within a month.

These changes uses the plural to refer to the gym's two separately named actions.

The university added two scholarships and waived application fees for low-income students. These steps widened access to the program.

The plural steps accurately matches the university's two separate actions.

Such + a noun: a category, not one particular item

Such + a noun names a category or type whose examples have just been given, rather than one particular action or item already mentioned. Use such when you mean things of this kind rather than this specific action.

Before a singular countable noun, use such a/an: such a practice. Plural and uncountable nouns take no article: such measures, such flexibility, such criticism.

If the continuation makes a general claim, such as that something happens often or is typical, such is usually more natural than these, which refers to the particular instance.

How to build it

such a / an + singular countable noun; such + plural or uncountable noun

noun: A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.

The startup offers unlimited sick days, flexible hours, and full remote work. Such flexibility is unusual in its industry.

Such flexibility groups three different benefits as examples of one category.

The reviewer criticized the pacing, the dialogue, and the ending. Such criticism rarely stops a bestseller from selling well.

Such criticism refers to a category—critical responses in general—not only this review; the following claim draws a general conclusion.

The former … the latter …: two items in order of mention

In the common pairing of two named items, the former means the first and the latter means the second. This clear pattern is the best one to learn first.

The latter also occurs with the meaning of the last item in a longer list. However, for three or more items, the last of these or repeating the name is often clearer. This is advice about clarity, not an absolute grammatical prohibition.

The former…the latter… is typical of formal comparisons between two options, candidates, or approaches and is uncommon in conversation.

How to build it

Item A, then item B → the former = A; the latter = B

The committee shortlisted two candidates, Elena and Marco. The former has more managerial experience, while the latter brings stronger technical skills.

Elena is mentioned first, so she is the former; Marco is second, so he is the latter.

The report compares two strategies, expansion and consolidation. The former promises faster growth; the latter offers more financial stability.

The order of the former/the latter exactly follows the original order of mention: expansion, then consolidation.

An unambiguous referent

The referent—the thing a reference expression points back to—must be unambiguous: the reader should immediately understand which action, idea, or item is meant without guessing among several candidates.

Ambiguity arises when several nouns or actions in the previous sentence could equally fit the reference expression, and the writer has not specified which is intended.

The simplest check is to mentally replace the reference expression with the full phrase it stands for. If several replacements are equally plausible, the referent is ambiguous and should be clarified with a more precise noun.

The company raised prices and cut staff bonuses in the same quarter. This double hit upset the sales team more than either change alone would have.

This double hit explicitly groups both actions, so the referent is clear even though there are two possible individual candidates.

The lab replaced its old equipment and hired two new technicians. This upgrade, more than the new hires alone, cut testing time in half.

The writer explicitly distinguishes the equipment upgrade from hiring the technicians, making the intended referent clear.

An accurate summarising noun

The noun after this/that/these/such should accurately name the type of event or idea in the previous sentence: decision, delay, upgrade, complaint, incentive. Avoid vague words such as thing, issue, aspect, or stuff, which can fit almost anything and clarify little.

A grammatically correct but inaccurate noun is also a problem: if the event is a decision but the writer calls it this solution, the meaning is distorted even though the reference expression has the correct form.

A precise noun also signals the writer's attitude: this problem and this opportunity frame the same fact differently.

The city closed the bridge for repairs without warning drivers in advance. This oversight caused hours of unnecessary traffic.

Oversight accurately names what happened—the failure to warn—rather than using a vague issue or problem.

The publisher delayed the release by six months to fix a printing error. This delay frustrated readers who had already pre-ordered the book.

Delay accurately names the event; the overly general issue would not show that the reference is specifically to postponing the date.

Common mistakes

Incorrect:The hospital extended visiting hours. These change reduced complaints from families.

Correct:The hospital extended visiting hours. This change reduced complaints from families.

Singular change agrees with this. Repeating extended visiting hours would also be grammatical; this change simply provides a more compact reference.

Incorrect:The airline delayed two connecting flights and lost several suitcases. This problems angered many travellers.

Correct:The airline delayed two connecting flights and lost several suitcases. These problems angered many travellers.

This agrees only with a singular noun; plural problems, referring to two separate problems, needs these.

Incorrect:The council reduced parking fees and extended library hours. These changes pleases local residents.

Correct:The council reduced parking fees and extended library hours. These changes pleased local residents.

Plural changes needs pleased for a past event or please for a present meaning, not pleases. Standalone This pleased local residents is also correct if it clearly picks up the whole situation.

Incorrect:The lab published results without peer review. Such the practice damaged its reputation.

Correct:The lab published results without peer review. Such a practice damaged its reputation.

Such before a singular countable noun requires the indefinite article a/an; such + the is not grammatical in this pattern.

Incorrect:The manager compared two suppliers: Meridian and Oakview. The latter, Meridian, offered a lower price, while the former, Oakview, guaranteed faster delivery.

Correct:The manager compared two suppliers: Meridian and Oakview. The former, Meridian, offered a lower price, while the latter, Oakview, guaranteed faster delivery.

In this two-item comparison, the former refers to the first-mentioned supplier, Meridian, and the latter to the second, Oakview. Reversing the labels assigns the qualities to the wrong supplier.

Incorrect:The survey listed three concerns: cost, delivery time, and packaging. The last of this proved the easiest to fix.

Correct:The survey listed three concerns: cost, delivery time, and packaging. The last of these proved the easiest to fix.

These refers to the plural set of concerns. The last of these unambiguously names the final item; the latter also occurs in this sense but may be less transparent.

Incorrect:The airline cancelled forty flights because of a technical fault. These decision left thousands of passengers stranded overnight.

Correct:The airline cancelled forty flights because of a technical fault. This decision left thousands of passengers stranded overnight.

Decision is a singular noun, so use this decision. These goes with plural decisions.

Sources

Linking paragraphs

Why a paragraph needs a connection

The beginning of a new paragraph can recall the previous point and signal a new direction. An explicit transition is useful when the connection is not obvious. In other cases, a logical sequence of ideas, repetition of a key word or a short linking expression is enough.

This is not about a single signal word such as however or moreover. It is about whether the first sentence of the new paragraph makes clear exactly which fact in the previous paragraph it connects to and what comes next.

Having explained why the bakery relocated to a larger unit, we can now examine how the move affected weekend sales.

One part identifies the previous discussion of the reason for the move; the other names the new focus.

In light of this move to larger premises, weekend sales are examined below.

The same two-way connection can be built with a prepositional phrase, not only a participle clause.

A precise backward reference, not a vague this

The reference must be clear. This or that without a noun works perfectly well when the preceding idea is unambiguous. If several interpretations are possible, add a specification: this rise in costs, that decision.

Moreover, furthermore and in addition can naturally connect paragraphs when the next point continues an intelligible argument. A more detailed reminder is needed when a short signal is insufficient.

Having outlined the three complaints raised by residents, the council now turns to possible responses.

The three complaints provides a specific, checkable referent rather than an abstract this.

In light of the sharp rise in reported potholes, the road maintenance budget is being reviewed.

The phrase names the actual fact — an increase in reports — rather than merely saying this problem.

The participle clause Having + V3

Having + past participle (V3) at the beginning of a sentence expresses an action already completed before the main-clause action begins: Having reviewed the data, we now propose changes. The main-clause subject, we, is also the participant that performed the reviewing.

The most common error here is a dangling participle: the main-clause subject did NOT perform the action in the participle clause. Having reviewed the budget figures, the meeting was adjourned is incorrect because the meeting itself did not review anything.

How to build it

Having + V3 (+ object), subject + predicate of the new clause.

subject / S: The grammatical subject: who or what the clause is about; the verb agrees with it. In The book was written, the book is the subject, although someone else does the action.
V3 / past participle: The third verb form: worked, gone, seen. Used after have/has or in the passive, for example; it is not always the same as V2.
object / O: Who or what an action affects: in I read a book, a book is the object.
clause: A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.

Having reviewed the shift patterns of the nursing staff, management now proposes a new rota.

Management is the group that reviewed the patterns and now proposes the new rota.

Having considered the feedback from twelve interviews, the design team revised the questionnaire.

The design team is the group that considered the feedback; the action and subject match logically.

Prepositional transitions

In light of and in view of introduce a reason or basis through a noun phrase: in light of the findings. Given also allows a noun phrase, as well as a that-clause: Given that seating is limited…. Make clear how the preceding information relates to the next step.

Building on works slightly differently: it explicitly says that the new part DEVELOPS what has just been said rather than merely taking it into account. It suits a paragraph that logically continues the same line of thought.

How to build it

In light of / Given / In view of + noun phrase, main clause.

NP / noun phrase: A noun phrase: a noun with its dependent words, such as the new student; the pattern treats it as one group of words.
noun: A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.
clause: A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.

In light of the delayed shipment, the launch date has been pushed back by two weeks.

The noun phrase the delayed shipment is a precise referent, with no verb after in light of.

Given the limited seating in the new hall, ticket numbers will be capped at 200.

Given here is close to ‘because there is’, not simply ‘in addition’.

In view of the positive pilot results, the programme will be extended to two more schools.

In view of emphasises that these particular results provided the basis for the decision.

Introducing a related issue rather than a consequence

A related issue is, A related issue concerns and A further question concerns introduce a SEPARATE issue parallel to the one just discussed, rather than its consequence. This matters when the new topic does not logically follow from the previous one but is related by subject matter.

Having discussed X, we now turn to Y primarily signals the order of presentation. It does not promise that Y is a consequence of X. If the connection is merely thematic, a related issue or a separate question can make that explicit.

How to build it

A related issue / A further question + concerns/is + noun phrase.

NP / noun phrase: A noun phrase: a noun with its dependent words, such as the new student; the pattern treats it as one group of words.
noun: A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.

A related issue concerns the training required for staff to use the new till system.

Staff training is not a consequence of the previous topic; it is a separate, parallel aspect.

A further question concerns how the change will be communicated to regular customers.

Further question signals an additional topic rather than one derived from the previous point.

Verbs showing direction: turn to, move on to, consider next

After the backward-looking part, the main clause often contains a verb explicitly naming the new action of the paragraph: turn to, move on to, examine, consider next or explore. The choice of verb does not itself change the relationship, but makes transitions more natural and less repetitive in a long text.

The same verbs are natural in spoken presentations and seminars: Having covered X, let’s move on to Y. The pattern is the same, with a slightly less formal register.

Having covered the causes of staff turnover, we now move on to possible retention strategies.

Move on to is a neutral expression of progression, without an implication of contrast.

The next section turns to how the results compare with last year's figures.

Turn to can be used without Having when the text itself is the subject, as in the next section.

Register and boundaries: what to avoid

I will now discuss…, This is important because… and impersonal transitions can all be appropriate in formal writing. The choice depends on genre and clarity of reference. So, next up sounds more like a spoken remark, but is grammatically correct.

When editing a transition, preserve the meaning. Do not invent reasons, numbers or consequences merely to create a more formal frame. Sometimes the clearest edit is a shorter sentence that names the new topic precisely.

Having established this pattern in customer feedback, the report now considers its long-term implications.

This is a formal counterpart to conversational Now let’s talk about the long-term effects.

In light of these findings, the next section considers how they might be communicated to the board.

There is no I or we: the style is entirely impersonal and formal.

Paragraph connections in a longer text

In a long text, explicit transitions help connect major sections of meaning. Every paragraph does not need the same opening formula: coherence also comes from a logical sequence and key words. Before the conclusion, you can briefly recall the whole path of the argument.

The same structure works orally in a talk or seminar: the speaker verbally ‘closes’ the previous point and ‘opens’ the new one so listeners do not lose the thread.

Having covered the venue and catering arrangements, the proposal now turns to the guest list.

In a document with several sections, each new section can similarly refer to the one just completed.

In a presentation, the same idea might sound like this: "Having looked at what caused the delay, let's turn now to how we can prevent it next time."

The spoken version is slightly less formal, using let’s, but the linking structure is the same.

Common mistakes

Incorrect:Having reviewed the budget figures for over an hour, the meeting was adjourned.

Correct:Having reviewed the budget figures for over an hour, the committee adjourned the meeting.

This is a dangling participle: the main-clause subject, the meeting, cannot perform the reviewing. The committee did that, so it must come immediately after the comma.

Incorrect:Having discuss the effect on customers, we now consider the effect on staff.

Correct:Having discussed the effect on customers, we now consider the effect on staff.

Having needs the past participle discussed. Personal I will now discuss… can also be an appropriate transition; do not ‘correct’ it by inventing new facts.

Incorrect:These enrolment figures indicates that later start times need reconsidering.

Correct:These enrolment figures indicate that later start times need reconsidering.

Plural figures requires indicate. Short This shows… is also correct when the reference of this is clear.

Incorrect:Beyond the scheduling difficulties already discussed, cost present a further obstacle.

Correct:Beyond the scheduling difficulties already discussed, cost presents a further obstacle.

Cost is a singular subject, so presents is required. Moreover, cost is a concern can also connect paragraphs when the preceding context is clear.

Incorrect:A separate issue concern the office’s parking policy.

Correct:A separate issue concerns the office’s parking policy.

Singular issue requires concerns. Having discussed X, we turn to Y can also introduce a separate topic and does not necessarily express causation.

Sources

Parallel structure for clarity

1. What parallel structure means

Parallel structure presents elements of equal importance consistently. For example, expanding, hiring and extending form a clear list after recommends. The forms must fit the construction they share. This is not a general ban on coordinating different kinds of phrases: She is friendly and in charge is possible.

This rule operates within ONE sentence. It concerns the form of items in a list or comparison, rather than connections between sentences or paragraphs.

How to build it

X, Y, and Z → use matching forms for a clear parallel list: nouns / gerunds / infinitives / clauses.

The proposal recommends expanding the library, hiring two tutors, and extending opening hours.

Expanding, hiring and extending are three gerunds sharing recommends. All three have the same form.

A good mentor listens carefully, gives honest feedback, and follows up regularly.

Listens, gives and follows up are three present simple verbs sharing one subject; all three maintain the same form.

2. The shared introductory element

When one verb, preposition or auxiliary introduces a list, every item should fit grammatically if it is used on its own in place of the whole list.

A simple check is to read the shared word with each item separately. If one combination does not fit naturally, check and repair its form.

How to build it

verb / preposition + [item 1, item 2, and item 3] → substitute each item individually for the bracketed list.

verb / V: A word for an action or state, such as work or be. The pattern determines its form.
preposition: A word showing a relationship, such as in, on or from: from Ukraine.

The lab requires students to label samples, record temperatures, and log results every hour.

The shared to introduces three base verbs: to label, (to) record and (to) log.

She is responsible for scheduling meetings, drafting minutes, and archiving decisions.

The preposition for introduces three gerunds. Each item works on its own: responsible for scheduling / for drafting / for archiving.

3. Paired, or correlative, conjunctions

Not only...but also, either...or, neither...nor and both...and introduce pairs of elements. Matching grammatical forms provide a clear parallel pattern for these pairs.

For clarity, place the two halves of the pair before the elements you want to contrast: not only to cut waste but also to save money. Matching structures make the focus clear. More complex combinations are also possible when each part is grammatically complete.

How to build it

not only + [form A] but also + [the same form] / either + [form A] or + [the same form]

The policy is designed not only to cut waste but also to save money.

The elements after not only and but also are both infinitives: to cut and to save.

The committee will either postpone the vote or reschedule the meeting entirely.

The elements after either and or are both base verbs, postpone and reschedule, sharing will.

4. Parallelism in comparisons

A comparison should relate corresponding actions or qualities. Matching forms are often the easiest option: Reviewing… is more useful than rushing… However, the second part may be a full or reduced clause, so the two sides do not always have identical surface forms.

A common mismatch is to begin a direct comparison of actions with a gerund and finish it with an infinitive, or the reverse. Check whether both parts fit the chosen comparison pattern.

How to build it

action or quality being compared + than / as + corresponding action, quality or comparative clause

clause: A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.

Reviewing the draft carefully is more useful than rushing to submit it.

Both sides of the comparison use gerunds: reviewing and rushing.

The new intern writes as clearly as she speaks.

Clearly is an adverb modifying writes; the clause she speaks follows the second as. The meaning compares the clarity of the intern’s writing and speech.

5. Common breaks in the pattern

Common problems include mixing base verbs, -ing forms and to-infinitives in one list, or combining a short phrase with a full clause that has its own subject where the shared construction does not support that mixture.

The final item is particularly likely to drift out of the chosen pattern: it is often added as a separate thought after the first two have already been written.

The training helps new hires understand policies, build confidence, and manage time effectively.

The three base verbs after helps... (to) are understand, build and manage. None changes form, including the last one.

The article discusses causes, consequences, and possible solutions.

Three nouns in a row provide a simple way to avoid mixing forms.

6. When different forms are natural

Not every three-item list needs detailed analysis. The items may differ in length as long as their grammatical role remains the same—for example, they may all be adjective phrases even if one is longer than the others.

Two elements joined by a simple and form an ordinary, everyday construction. They become a particular learning focus here when their forms actually diverge.

This rule does not cover reference words such as this, that and such for connecting to an earlier sentence, or discourse markers such as however and in addition between paragraphs. Those are neighbouring rules in this topic. It also does not cover list punctuation, such as the comma before and.

The report is accurate, well-organized, and easy to follow.

Well-organized and easy to follow are adjective phrases of different lengths, but both serve an adjectival role. Different lengths do not break parallel structure.

Managers should praise good work and address problems quickly.

The two verbs share should and already form a parallel pair. Parallelism does not require a list of three items.

7. Applying the rule: checking your writing

For a practical check, find the shared word before the list, separate out the items, and read the shared word with each item individually.

If the pattern is broken, repair the item that does not fit the others rather than rewriting the entire sentence.

In formal academic writing, parallel form is particularly noticeable in concluding sentences and bullet points. It signals careful organization to the reader.

How to build it

Find the list → identify the first item’s form → check each remaining item → repair the item that does not fit.

Before submitting the report, check that every heading uses the same tense, every bullet starts with a verb, and every claim has a source.

The three clauses each follow every + noun + verb. The checking advice is itself written in parallel form.

A strong summary states the problem, outlines the method, and highlights the result.

Three present simple verbs share the subject summary, a typical structure in an academic summary.

Common mistakes

Incorrect:The manual explains how to install the software, updating the drivers, and to run the diagnostics.

Correct:The manual explains how to install the software, update the drivers, and run the diagnostics.

After how to, install, update and run make the clearest sequence here. To can also be repeated before each item; repetition itself is not an error. Updating breaks the chosen infinitive pattern.

Incorrect:The workshop covers writing clear emails, giving feedback, and to running meetings.

Correct:The workshop covers writing clear emails, giving feedback, and running meetings.

To running does not fit this list after covers. Running makes the list parallel. How to run meetings could also be a grammatical complement, although it would give that item a different form.

Incorrect:The award recognises employees who mentor juniors, who improve processes, and contributing to the community.

Correct:The award recognises employees who mentor juniors, who improve processes, and who contribute to the community.

The three relative clauses in this pattern use the same opening, who + verb. Contributing does not fit that sequence.

Sources

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