A result in a separate sentence
These adverbial links refer to a reason and introduce its result or a conclusion. The reason can appear in the previous sentence or be understood from wider context. Therefore does not always describe a physical cause: it can introduce a logical inference.
Two separate sentences are useful for learning: first the reason, then the result. They are not the only structure; semicolons and mid-sentence adverbs are shown below.
The report contained several factual errors. Therefore, the editor asked for a full rewrite before publication.
The report contained several factual errors. Therefore, the editor asked for a full rewrite before publication.
Therefore states the result in a separate sentence after the reason has been supplied.
The train was cancelled without warning. As a result, dozens of passengers missed their connecting bus.
The train was cancelled without warning. As a result, dozens of passengers missed their connecting bus.
As a result likewise opens a separate sentence describing the outcome.
Punctuation: full stop before, comma after
A standard model ends the first sentence with a full stop, begins the second with a capitalised connector and places a comma immediately after it.
The same link can use a semicolon within one sentence. The connector then starts with a lowercase letter, and the following comma remains.
sentence 1. Therefore, / As a result, / Consequently, + sentence 2. OR sentence 1; therefore, / as a result, / consequently, + sentence 2.
The bridge needed urgent repairs. Consequently, the road was closed for a month.
The bridge needed urgent repairs. Consequently, the road was closed for a month.
A full stop before Consequently, a capital letter and a comma after the connector.
The bridge needed urgent repairs; consequently, the road was closed for a month.
The bridge needed urgent repairs; consequently, the road was closed for a month.
The same meaning with a semicolon: consequently is now lowercase, retaining the following comma.
Why a comma alone is insufficient
So is a conjunction and can join two independent clauses with a comma in this pattern.
Therefore, as a result and consequently are linking adverbs rather than conjunctions. A comma alone before them does not join the independent clauses correctly: it creates a comma splice, a common error with these expressions.
It began to snow heavily, so the match was postponed.
It began to snow heavily, so the match was postponed.
So is a conjunction, so a comma before it works.
It began to snow heavily. Therefore, the match was postponed.
It began to snow heavily. Therefore, the match was postponed.
The same idea with Therefore needs a full stop or semicolon before the connector rather than a comma alone.
Formality compared with so
So is natural in conversation and informal writing. Therefore, as a result and consequently sound more formal and are common in reports, letters, news and academic writing.
Replacing so with one of these three connectors is a common step from conversational style to business or formal writing.
The Wi-Fi went down twice during the call, so we switched to phones instead.
The Wi-Fi went down twice during the call, so we switched to phones instead.
A conversational so version, natural in an informal account to a colleague.
The Wi-Fi went down twice during the call. Consequently, the team switched to phones for the rest of the meeting.
The Wi-Fi went down twice during the call. Consequently, the team switched to phones for the rest of the meeting.
The same core event in a more formal version suitable for meeting minutes.
4. The connector must introduce the intended conclusion
The basic pattern gives the reason first, then the conclusion with therefore, as a result or consequently. Mechanically swapping the statements can change the logic.
This is an order of explanation, not a law of chronology. Present evidence can support a conclusion about the past: The road is wet. Therefore, it must have rained. Check what actually supports your conclusion.
reason (sentence 1). Therefore, / As a result, / Consequently, + result (sentence 2).
Two flights were merged into one at the last minute. Therefore, the departure gate changed twice within an hour.
Two flights were merged into one at the last minute. Therefore, the departure gate changed twice within an hour.
The flight merger is presented as the reason; the gate changes as its result. Swapping them would change this asserted relationship.
The main road was resurfaced overnight. As a result, cyclists were redirected through the park for one morning.
The main road was resurfaced overnight. As a result, cyclists were redirected through the park for one morning.
The road work is the reason; the cyclists’ diversion is the result.
Flexible positions within a sentence
Therefore and consequently can appear inside a sentence: The contract therefore needed a second signature. Commas are possible for a parenthetical comment, but not compulsory in an integrated position.
As a result can also occur inside a sentence or at the end: Sales fell, and profits dropped as a result. Choose a position that clearly links back to the reason.
The contract, therefore, needed a second signature before Friday.
The contract, therefore, needed a second signature before Friday.
Therefore appears between subject and predicate, set off by two commas.
Ticket sales, consequently, were tracked separately from membership renewals that month.
Ticket sales, consequently, were tracked separately from membership renewals that month.
The same linking meaning as at the sentence’s beginning, with consequently in another position.
A trap: as a result of + noun
As a result of is a separate prepositional construction. A noun or noun phrase directly follows it, with no comma between of and that noun.
This differs from connector as a result, + complete clause. Do not insert of and a comma where a full second clause is expected; conversely, do not follow as a result with a comma and then a causal noun without of.
As a result of the delay, the whole schedule for the afternoon had to change.
As a result of the delay, the whole schedule for the afternoon had to change.
As a result of + noun phrase the delay is another construction, rather than this rule’s target.
The schedule for the afternoon had to change. As a result, two later meetings were moved to the following day.
The schedule for the afternoon had to change. As a result, two later meetings were moved to the following day.
As a result is the target connector here: a comma and complete clause, without of.
Using the connectors in business writing
In reports, letters and news, these connectors naturally link a fact with its implications for a reader who has not yet seen the conclusion.
One short, clearly punctuated reason-to-result link is often more convincing than a long sentence containing several subordinate clauses.
The pilot programme reduced processing time by half in its first month. Therefore, the department plans to extend it to every branch next year.
The pilot programme reduced processing time by half in its first month. Therefore, the department plans to extend it to every branch next year.
A typical business example: a specific outcome followed by a decision based on it.
Feedback from the trial was almost entirely positive. Consequently, the committee approved the proposal without further changes.
Feedback from the trial was almost entirely positive. Consequently, the committee approved the proposal without further changes.
Formal reporting style typical of meeting minutes.
Common mistakes
Incorrect:The delivery van broke down twice last week, therefore two orders arrived a day late.
Correct:The delivery van broke down twice last week. Therefore, two orders arrived a day late.
A comma splice: therefore is not a conjunction like so, so a comma alone cannot join these independent clauses. Put a full stop or semicolon before the connector.
Incorrect:The museum extended its hours, as a result the shop stayed open late too.
Correct:The museum extended its hours. As a result, the shop stayed open late too.
In standard writing, do not join independent clauses using only a comma before as a result. A full stop starts a new sentence; a comma after the short initial link is a common editorial pattern rather than a universal requirement in every style.
Incorrect:The elevator was out of service for repairs; Therefore, deliveries were carried up by hand.
Correct:The elevator was out of service for repairs; therefore, deliveries were carried up by hand.
After a semicolon, the same sentence continues, so the connector is lowercase. A capital is appropriate when it begins a new sentence after a full stop.
Incorrect:As a result, the storm, the ferry crossing was cancelled for the day.
Correct:As a result of the storm, the ferry crossing was cancelled for the day.
Do not attach a causal noun to as a result through a comma. Use the complete phrase as a result of, without an extra comma before the noun.
Incorrect:Therefore the technician arrived two hours late, the customer had already left.
Correct:The technician arrived two hours late. Therefore, the customer had already left.
Therefore must introduce the conclusion supported by the reason, rather than mistakenly mark the reason itself as the conclusion in this basic pattern.
Incorrect:Ticket sales fell sharply in December. As a result, decided to run a New Year discount.
Correct:Ticket sales fell sharply in December. As a result, the company decided to run a New Year discount.
The clause after the connector still needs its own subject: As a result does not fill that role.