1. Who “speaks” in the sentence: what impersonality means
An academic sentence usually addresses “What do the data and evidence show?” rather than “What does the writer think?” Personal pronouns such as I, you and we, and phrases such as in my opinion, are therefore often replaced with impersonal constructions: the subject becomes neutral and attention shifts to the research topic.
Dummy it, there is/are, generic one, an inanimate subject and the passive offer different ways to organise a message. However, replacing I believe with It is generally accepted changes the source and scope of the claim. Do so only when there is genuine support for the view being widely held.
The rule has boundaries: disciplines differ in their treatment of first person, and I is natural in reflective writing or personal statements, as discussed in the final sections. Impersonality is a tool suited to a genre, not a ban on pronouns.
It is generally accepted that tidal power remains an under-used resource.
It is generally accepted that tidal power remains an under-used resource.
The speaker presents the position as widely held. This is not a simple stylistic replacement for I believe: generally accepted needs support.
Three trials indicate that the new coating reduces corrosion.
Three trials indicate that the new coating reduces corrosion.
The subject is inanimate: the trials themselves provide the indication, rather than the author being the grammatical subject.
The soil samples were dried before they were weighed.
The soil samples were dried before they were weighed.
An agentless passive: the action matters, not who performed it.
2. Dummy it: It is argued that…
The construction consists of the dummy subject it, a form of be or has been, and a participle or adjective followed by a that-clause. It does not refer to anything, but the sentence is incomplete without it, so do not omit it: “It is widely accepted that…”.
Common participles include accepted, argued, claimed, estimated, observed, shown, found and thought; adjectives include likely, unlikely, possible and clear. Tense sets the perspective: is argued is present; has been shown presents a result up to now; was found is past. Was found does not automatically mean that there was only one study.
After that, use a full clause with its own subject and verb: “It is argued that the charge to be too low” is incorrect; use “…the charge is too low”.
It + is/was/has been + participle (argued, shown, observed…) + that + clause; It + is + adjective (likely, unlikely) + that + clause
- adjective —
- A word describing what someone or something is like: happy, tired, interesting.
- clause —
- A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.
It has been argued that green spaces reduce stress in cities.
It has been argued that green spaces reduce stress in cities.
Has been argued summarises discussion up to the present; the authors are not named.
It was observed that the bees avoided the treated fields.
It was observed that the bees avoided the treated fields.
Was observed presents an observation in the past, without naming the observer.
It is estimated that plastic bag use fell by half after the charge.
It is estimated that plastic bag use fell by half after the charge.
Estimated presents the number as an estimate rather than an exact fact.
It is unlikely that a single factor explains the decline.
It is unlikely that a single factor explains the decline.
It is + adjective also takes a that-clause; unlikely additionally gives a cautious assessment of probability.
3. There is/are: evidence, reasons and arguments
There is/are states what exists: evidence, a reason, grounds or an argument. There is a grammatical placeholder rather than a location, and the verb agrees with the following noun: there is evidence, which is uncountable; there are several reasons, which is plural.
Evidence is uncountable in this use, so evidences is incorrect. For several sources, use a countable noun: there are several studies, or there is a body of research. Evidence can be followed by a that-clause or an infinitive: there is evidence that…, there is evidence to suggest that….
Words such as some, little, limited and considerable calibrate the claim: there is little evidence says that the evidence is scarce. This evaluates the strength of the evidence base rather than the author.
There + is/are + evidence / reason / a case / studies + that-clause or to-infinitive
- clause —
- A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.
- infinitive —
- The base verb form. With to: to work; without to: work. The pattern determines whether to is needed.
There is little evidence that school uniforms improve attendance.
There is little evidence that school uniforms improve attendance.
Evidence is uncountable, so use is; little indicates a weak evidence base.
There are several reasons for the decline in bee populations.
There are several reasons for the decline in bee populations.
Reasons is plural, so use are.
There is a strong case for stricter limits on pesticide use.
There is a strong case for stricter limits on pesticide use.
A case for refers to supporting arguments rather than simply the author's personal position.
4. Generic one
The pronoun one means people in general and gives a formal, impersonal tone: One might argue that…, One should be cautious when…. It addresses the reader less directly than you and is therefore considered more formal.
Keep pronoun reference consistent within a sentence: one is followed by one's, or by their or his/her in some current usage, rather than your. One should check your sources mixes impersonal and direct address.
Repeated one can easily sound excessively ceremonious or artificial. A passive or an it-construction may make such passages more natural.
One + modal / verb + … one's …
- verb / V —
- A word for an action or state, such as work or be. The pattern determines its form.
- modal —
- A modal verb expresses meanings such as ability, possibility or necessity: can, may, must.
One might argue that the charge on plastic bags was set too low.
One might argue that the charge on plastic bags was set too low.
An impersonal frame for a tentative argument.
One should be cautious when generalising from a single case study.
One should be cautious when generalising from a single case study.
General advice without directly addressing the reader.
If one considers the cost of repair, the scheme looks questionable.
If one considers the cost of repair, the scheme looks questionable.
One can be the subject of a subordinate clause; the main clause can have a different subject.
5. Inanimate subjects and agentless passives
Instead of “I see that…”, academic writing can let results speak: The data indicate that…, Table 4 summarises…. The subject is inanimate, and the reporting verb shows what follows from the data. A useful set includes suggest, indicate and imply, often more cautious, and show, reveal, illustrate and demonstrate, often more direct. Data permits both singular and plural agreement: indicates and indicate.
An agentless passive is useful when what was done matters more than who did it, such as in a Methods section, or when the agent is unknown or obvious. The passive subject undergoes the action: “Samples were collected”, rather than “We collected samples”.
Do not pile up passives. If the agent matters, such as a named research team, an active sentence can identify it. Do not mix the forms: “The data is indicated that…” is incorrect because indicate is active here.
Inanimate subject (data, findings, Table 2) + reporting verb + that; affected subject + be + V3
- subject / S —
- The grammatical subject: who or what the clause is about; the verb agrees with it. In The book was written, the book is the subject, although someone else does the action.
- verb / V —
- A word for an action or state, such as work or be. The pattern determines its form.
- V3 / past participle —
- The third verb form: worked, gone, seen. Used after have/has or in the passive, for example; it is not always the same as V2.
The findings reveal that most visitors arrive by bus.
The findings reveal that most visitors arrive by bus.
An inanimate plural subject with matching plural verb agreement.
Table 4 summarises the cost of each option.
Table 4 summarises the cost of each option.
The table is the grammatical subject of summarises, so “we summarise” is unnecessary.
Soil samples were collected at five depths.
Soil samples were collected at five depths.
An agentless passive in a Methods section.
The new method was tested on two hundred leaves.
The new method was tested on two hundred leaves.
The method and material matter, rather than the identity of the tester.
6. An objective style does not mean a claim is proven
An impersonal frame changes how a claim is attributed, not how true it is. “It is widely accepted that…” makes sense only when the position really is widespread and sources support that. An empty “It is said that…” without a reference proves nothing.
The verbs convey different meanings: suggest can introduce a tentative inference, illustrate provides an illustration, confirm gives confirmation, and prove establishes proof. This is not a fixed scale of strength. Choose the word according to what the data actually support, adding may, might or could where needed.
Good impersonal writing therefore combines three things: a frame without personal pronouns, a verb of appropriate force, and identification of the supporting source or data.
Several studies suggest that green spaces may reduce stress, although the effect is small.
Several studies suggest that green spaces may reduce stress, although the effect is small.
Suggest and may convey caution, while although states a limitation.
It is claimed that the additive is harmless, but no independent trial has confirmed this.
It is claimed that the additive is harmless, but no independent trial has confirmed this.
The frame it is claimed does not endorse the claim; the following clause states that independent confirmation is absent.
One trial of sixty patients cannot prove that the treatment works.
One trial of sixty patients cannot prove that the treatment works.
Prove is negated here, marking a limit to the strength of the evidence.
7. When I and we fit, and the limits of the rule
I and we are acceptable in many academic genres, including descriptions of methods, personal decisions and arguments. Acceptability depends on the discipline, journal and purpose of the sentence, not just on whether the text is reflective.
We found that…, The results show… and It was observed that… can coexist in one text. Choose the form that makes the action, source and authorial responsibility clear; first person does not itself weaken the evidence.
This rule does not teach replacing conversational words with formal ones, such as get with obtain, and it does not cover contractions or phrasal verbs. Those belong to separate rules on formal vocabulary and contractions. Here, the focus is on who or what is the subject and what supports the claim.
I realised that my interview questions were too leading.
I realised that my interview questions were too leading.
Reflection on the writer's own work: I is appropriate and natural.
In this study, I interviewed ten retired teachers.
In this study, I interviewed ten retired teachers.
If the discipline or instructor permits first person, it can be used in qualitative research methods.
I have three years of experience in field research.
I have three years of experience in field research.
A personal statement describes the writer's own experience, making I difficult to avoid.
8. A transformation method: from an opinion to a statement
When transforming a sentence, separate form from content. We tested the filter can become The filter was tested if the agent is unimportant. I think cannot automatically become The evidence suggests: first establish that such evidence actually exists.
The content must stay unchanged: if the sentence loses a number, a name or a negative, the transformation has failed.
The filter was tested on forty samples.
The filter was tested on forty samples.
A transformation of “We tested the filter on forty samples”: the agent is omitted and the substantive content preserved.
The evidence suggests that the charge worked.
The evidence suggests that the charge worked.
This sentence is appropriate only if relevant evidence exists. It adds an evidential basis compared with I think, so it is not simply a change of style.
Figure 1 shows that bee numbers fell.
Figure 1 shows that bee numbers fell.
A transformation of “You can see that bee numbers fell”: direct address has been replaced by an inanimate subject.
Common mistakes
Incorrect:Is generally agreed that tidal power is under-used.
Correct:It is generally agreed that tidal power is under-used.
An English declarative sentence needs a subject; dummy it fills that role in this impersonal passive and cannot be omitted.
Incorrect:There is several reasons for this decline.
Correct:There are several reasons for this decline.
The verb in there is/are agrees with the following noun: plural reasons requires are.
Incorrect:One should be cautious about your own assumptions.
Correct:One should be cautious about one's own assumptions.
After one, the possessive form remains impersonal; your switches back to addressing the reader and breaks the consistency.
Incorrect:It has been suggest that the additive is harmless.
Correct:It has been suggested that the additive is harmless.
After has been, use the past participle: suggested.
Incorrect:It is argued that the charge to be too low.
Correct:It is argued that the charge is too low.
After that, use a full clause with a finite verb, not an infinitive.
Incorrect:There is evidences that green spaces reduce stress.
Correct:There is evidence that green spaces reduce stress.
Evidence is uncountable and has no plural in this use; for several sources, say there are several studies.