Three levels of responsibility for a statement
A writer can state something directly, taking responsibility for it. They can attribute it to a named source or group, leaving it as someone else's statement. Finally, they can add wording or context to the attribution that signals their reservations.
Distancing is not the same as distrust. Attribution identifies a source but does not automatically transfer all responsibility to it. The writer remains responsible for accurate reporting and the presentation of evidence; context tells us whether they agree or doubt the claim.
The four-day week raises productivity.
The four-day week raises productivity.
A direct statement: the writer takes responsibility for it.
According to the pilot programme's organisers, the four-day week raises productivity.
According to the pilot programme's organisers, the four-day week raises productivity.
The source of the statement is named. This proves neither the writer's agreement nor disagreement and does not remove their responsibility to report accurately.
Supporters of the scheme claim that the four-day week raises productivity.
Supporters of the scheme claim that the four-day week raises productivity.
The verb claim leaves room for doubt, especially when reservations follow.
A named source: According to and a subject with a reporting verb
According to + source name can open a sentence (followed by a comma) or appear within it between commas: The painting, according to the museum's records, was sold in 1952. According to does not need a second reporting verb after it.
According to points to information obtained from someone else. We normally introduce our own opinion with In my view or I think, not According to me.
The other main pattern is a source as subject with a reporting verb: Curators argue that the label is outdated. The source can be a named person, an organisation or a class of people (critics, historians, commentators).
According to the museum's records, the painting was sold in 1952.
According to the museum's records, the painting was sold in 1952.
A named document: the source can be located.
The painting, according to the museum's records, was sold in 1952.
The painting, according to the museum's records, was sold in 1952.
Attribution inside the sentence, between commas.
Curators argue that the label is outdated.
Curators argue that the label is outdated.
A group as subject and a reporting verb with a that-clause.
In my view, the painting was sold too cheaply.
In my view, the painting was sold too cheaply.
The writer's own position is not introduced with According to.
The reporting verb signals the writer's position
Result verbs (show, find, demonstrate, establish) present the content as a finding, which the writer usually accepts. Position verbs (argue, suggest, maintain, contend, propose, state, assert) convey someone's proposition, open to evaluation. Claim often adds a reservation, but not always: context decides.
The writer's own voice works differently: in I argue that or This essay argues that, the writer is responsible for the proposition. Distancing arises when a third party is the subject.
Allege is usually used about guilt or wrongdoing that has not yet been proved. Neutral verbs (state, note, report) give little indication of the writer's attitude; context and the following sentence then express it.
Studies have demonstrated that regular sleep supports learning.
Studies have demonstrated that regular sleep supports learning.
A result verb: the statement is presented as established.
Several historians suggest that the trade route shifted after the flood.
Several historians suggest that the trade route shifted after the flood.
A position verb: the proposition belongs to others and remains open to evaluation.
The vendor claims that the battery lasts a week, yet our tests show two days.
The vendor claims that the battery lasts a week, yet our tests show two days.
Claim is contrasted with the writer's own data.
I argue that the programme should be extended.
I argue that the programme should be extended.
The writer's own proposition: there is no distancing here.
Impersonal passive: It has been argued that…
The pattern It + be + participle + that-clause shifts attention from the person making the statement to its content, without naming that person. Typical verbs include argued, claimed, suggested, alleged, reported, said, believed, thought, proposed and stated. A by-phrase can be added: It has been argued by several historians that…
Has been argued often connects earlier arguments to the current discussion. Was argued locates the report in the past; an exact date need not be given. It could be argued that can introduce a possible argument without claiming that anyone has already made it.
It has been suggested that tourism harms small fishing villages.
It has been suggested that tourism harms small fishing villages.
The person making the suggestion is unnamed: the proposition belongs to unspecified others.
It was reported that the shipment had arrived late.
It was reported that the shipment had arrived late.
Past Simple: a particular report in the past.
It has been argued by several historians that the treaty was a compromise.
It has been argued by several historians that the treaty was a compromise.
The by-phrase restores the source of the proposition.
Personal passive: X is said to…
The person or thing being discussed becomes the sentence's subject: The bridge is said to be unsafe. A passive reporting verb is followed by an infinitive. For an event earlier than the time of reporting, use a perfect infinitive: is said to have collapsed.
Common verbs in this pattern include said, believed, thought, reported, understood, alleged and claimed. Do not mix it with it + passive + that-clause: The bridge is said that… does not express the required structure. Check the suitability of other verbs individually; argued to be, for example, occurs in academic writing.
The old lighthouse is believed to be over three hundred years old.
The old lighthouse is believed to be over three hundred years old.
Simple infinitive: a present state.
The painter is thought to have left the city in 1890.
The painter is thought to have left the city in 1890.
Perfect infinitive: the event occurred earlier.
The mine is reported to be producing less than expected.
The mine is reported to be producing less than expected.
Continuous infinitive: the process is ongoing now.
Attribution adverbs and nouns
Reportedly identifies other people's reports as the source; the word itself does not tell us whether those reports have been verified. Allegedly often concerns unproven accusations; purportedly and supposedly may more strongly suggest distance or doubt. The precise nuance depends on context.
A noun pattern turns someone else's assertion into a noun phrase: the claim that…, the allegation that…, the assertion that…, the belief that…, the rumour that…. The writer then adds an evaluation: The claim that the road is safe has not been tested. So-called can distance the writer from a name (the so-called miracle diet), but can also neutrally introduce a technical term. It does not always imply doubt.
The mayor allegedly accepted gifts from contractors.
The mayor allegedly accepted gifts from contractors.
Allegedly: an accusation without proof.
Reportedly, the studio has cancelled its next film.
Reportedly, the studio has cancelled its next film.
Reportedly marks someone else's report; the sentence does not specify whether it has been verified.
The rumour that the festival will move has upset local traders.
The rumour that the festival will move has upset local traders.
A noun pattern with a that-clause.
The so-called miracle diet turned out to be a marketing slogan.
The so-called miracle diet turned out to be a marketing slogan.
So-called questions the name itself.
Source specificity and the limits of distancing
A source can be named (Smith, 2020; the 2022 safety audit), collective (critics, some researchers) or impersonal (it is said). The more precise and clearly identified the source, the easier the claim is to check. Unexplained impersonal patterns can conveniently carry unverified claims, so precise writing supports them with a source.
Attribution is useful beyond disputed claims: it also shows where verified data came from and credits the source. Unusual distancing from a widely known fact may suggest doubt, but this is a contextual effect, not a rule for every reference.
According to the 2021 fire inspection, three exits were blocked.
According to the 2021 fire inspection, three exits were blocked.
The named inspection provides a point where the reader can look for confirmation.
Some residents say that the river smells worse every summer.
Some residents say that the river smells worse every summer.
A collective source: we know who is speaking, but verification is harder than with a named document.
Our readings confirm a temperature of 41 degrees in the server room.
Our readings confirm a temperature of 41 degrees in the server room.
The writer's own verified result: a direct statement is appropriate.
After attribution: the writer's evaluation
Attribution alone does not say what the writer thinks. Readers look to the next sentence: it may confirm the proposition, reject it or leave it open. Contrastive connectives (however, yet, but) and result verbs in the following sentence make the writer's position explicit.
Attribution and a hedge can precisely convey different things: who expressed a view and how strongly it was stated. It has been suggested that the effect may be temporary preserves the source's caution; it does not necessarily make the meaning vague. Remove only genuinely unnecessary markers.
Some trainers say that cold showers speed up recovery. However, the trials so far are too small to show this.
Some trainers say that cold showers speed up recovery. However, the trials so far are too small to show this.
Attribution followed by the writer's own evaluation.
It has been suggested that the effect may be temporary.
It has been suggested that the effect may be temporary.
Attribution identifies an earlier suggestion, while may preserves possibility rather than certainty. Both elements may be needed for an accurate report.
Common mistakes
Incorrect:According to the report states that rents have risen.
Correct:According to the report, rents have risen.
According to does not need a second reporting verb: the source is already named, and the statement itself follows the comma.
Incorrect:According of the report, this policy is unfair.
Correct:According to the report, this policy is unfair.
The phrase introducing a source is according to, not according of. Here, the source is the report; for your own position without citing a source, In my view is natural.
Incorrect:It has been maintain that tourism harms the town.
Correct:It has been maintained that tourism harms the town.
After been in a passive, use the third form maintained. It has maintained can be correct if it refers to an institution, but that would be a personal active report.
Incorrect:The mayor is said that he took the money.
Correct:The mayor is said to have taken the money.
The personal passive does not combine with a that-clause; it requires an infinitive, and an earlier event requires the perfect infinitive.
Incorrect:The author is said to wrote the letter in 1990.
Correct:The author is said to have written the letter in 1990.
To is followed by a base form; anterior time is expressed by to have + V3, not a Past Simple form.