The intuition: concession expressed by a preposition
Concession tells us that something happened in the face of a circumstance that might have prevented it. English has two equivalent prepositions for this: despite and in spite of. They have the same concessive meaning as although, but the sentence structure is different.
It is easy to mistakenly use despite directly before a full clause. After despite and in spite of, instead use a noun phrase, an -ing clause or the fact that + full clause: despite the rain, despite being tired, despite the fact that she was tired.
Concession is not the same as cause. A sentence with Despite says that an obstacle existed, yet the result was unexpected. If the circumstance explains the result, a different expression is needed (because of, due to), which is not the focus here.
Despite the late hour, the library was still full.
Despite the late hour, the library was still full.
The late hour might have deterred visitors, but it did not: this is concession.
The team scored twice in spite of the injuries.
The team scored twice in spite of the injuries.
The phrase with in spite of can also come at the end of the sentence.
In spite of being short of time, Maya cooked a full dinner.
In spite of being short of time, Maya cooked a full dinner.
The meaning is the same, but the circumstance is expressed with an -ing form.
What can follow despite and in spite of
Despite and in spite of allow three kinds of continuation: a noun phrase (the strong competition), an -ing form (having read, being invited), and a clause introduced through the fact that. A subject and finite verb directly after them (despite she was tired) is not possible; neither is a base form (despite be tired) or a to-infinitive.
A pronoun can take the place of a noun: despite this, in spite of everything. This is useful when the obstacle has already been named in the previous sentence.
If you want to retain a complete clause with its own tense and subject after despite or in spite of, use the fact that. Another option is to change the whole pattern to although + full clause.
Despite / In spite of + noun phrase | -ing | the fact that + clause
- V-ing / -ing —
- The verb form ending in -ing: working, going. Its role depends on the construction.
- NP / noun phrase —
- A noun phrase: a noun with its dependent words, such as the new student; the pattern treats it as one group of words.
- noun —
- A word naming a person, thing or idea: student, book, happiness.
- clause —
- A construction with a verb, often with its own subject: when I arrived. A non-finite clause may leave the subject unspoken: to get home.
Despite his age, Mr Brown cycles to work every day.
Despite his age, Mr Brown cycles to work every day.
Despite is followed by the noun phrase his age.
In spite of the strong competition, the small bakery grew steadily.
In spite of the strong competition, the small bakery grew steadily.
A noun phrase with an adjective follows in spite of.
Despite everything, we remain optimistic.
Despite everything, we remain optimistic.
The pronoun everything also performs a noun-like role.
-ing forms: simple, perfect, passive, negative
When the subject of the obstacle is the same as the main clause's subject, the clause can conveniently be reduced to an -ing form. A simple form (being) describes a state or action generally. A perfect form (having read) emphasises completion before the main action. A passive form (being invited, having been warned) is needed when the subject undergoes rather than performs the action.
Put negation before the -ing form: not knowing, never having lived. The preposition remains affirmative, while not or never comes directly before the verb.
A typical learner error is leaving the verb in its bare form (despite have) or using a to-infinitive (despite to have). English requires the -ing form here.
Despite having read three reviews, Oksana was unsure what to buy.
Despite having read three reviews, Oksana was unsure what to buy.
The perfect form shows that the reading was completed before the uncertainty.
Despite being invited, Pavlo did not go to the party.
Despite being invited, Pavlo did not go to the party.
A passive -ing form: Pavlo received the invitation, rather than doing the inviting.
In spite of not knowing the area, they found the hotel quickly.
In spite of not knowing the area, they found the hotel quickly.
Not comes before the -ing form.
The fact that: a bridge to a full clause
Sometimes reducing a clause to a noun or -ing form is impossible or unnatural: it has its own subject, tense or modality. Then use the fact that. Despite the fact that functions like a concessive conjunction, although formally it is still the same preposition with the noun phrase the fact.
After the fact that, use the normal clause order: subject, verb, the rest. Note that in spite of the fact that retains of, while despite the fact that remains without it.
The fact that makes the expression longer but lets you retain the full clause without restructuring it. Although + clause often conveys precisely the same meaning. Choose the form that is easier to read in the particular context.
Despite the fact that nobody had advertised it, the event attracted a crowd.
Despite the fact that nobody had advertised it, the event attracted a crowd.
The clause with the Past Perfect cannot directly follow despite without the fact that.
She enjoys the job in spite of the fact that the salary is modest.
She enjoys the job in spite of the fact that the salary is modest.
The phrase is at the end of the sentence, without a comma.
Prices rose sharply. Despite this, demand did not fall.
Prices rose sharply. Despite this, demand did not fall.
The pronoun this refers to the previous sentence.
-ing with its own subject: when the subjects differ
If the obstacle involves someone or something different from the main clause's subject, the -ing form needs its own noun or pronoun: the printer being broken, her brother living abroad. Without it, the -ing form attaches to the main clause's subject, producing the wrong meaning.
Compare Despite being broken, ...: this reads as though the main clause's subject is broken. When the participants differ, therefore, either give the -ing form its own subject or use the fact that or a noun.
Before -ing, a possessive form (his being late) or, especially in conversation, an object form (him being late) can be used. If the action belongs to someone other than the main clause's subject, name that participant or restructure the sentence.
Despite the printer being broken, we finished the report on time.
Despite the printer being broken, we finished the report on time.
The subject of the obstacle (printer) differs from the main clause's subject (we).
In spite of her brother living abroad, Ira visits him twice a year.
In spite of her brother living abroad, Ira visits him twice a year.
The -ing form has its own subject, her brother.
Despite the wind getting stronger, the sailors kept going.
Despite the wind getting stronger, the sailors kept going.
The subject wind is named, so there is no incorrect attachment.
Despite or in spite of: form, position, punctuation
Despite and in spite of have the same meaning; their difference is in form. Despite is one word and is not followed by of. In spite of is three words, with of as a required part. The most common incorrect versions are despite of, in spite without of, and in despite of.
The concessive phrase can be placed at the beginning or end of a sentence. At the beginning, separate it from the main clause with a comma. At the end, a comma is usually not used, though one is possible for additional emphasis.
Despite and in spite of are usually interchangeable in this pattern. The preposition's form changes, not the concessive meaning.
Despite + … (without of) | In spite of + … (with of)
In spite of the delay, the ceremony began at noon.
In spite of the delay, the ceremony began at noon.
The opening phrase is separated by a comma.
The ceremony began at noon despite the delay.
The ceremony began at noon despite the delay.
The same meaning, with the phrase at the end and no comma.
Despite the delay, the ceremony began at noon.
Despite the delay, the ceremony began at noon.
Despite without of has the same meaning as in spite of.
Related constructions: how they differ
Although, though and even though usually introduce a full subordinate clause: Although the museum was crowded… Reduced forms such as although tired are also possible. Despite and in spite of use their own pattern: a noun phrase, -ing or the fact that + clause.
However, nevertheless and nonetheless are linking expressions between clauses or sentences; they can follow a full stop or semicolon. These connectors also have their own rule.
Because of and due to express cause, not concession. Compare Because of the crowds, we saw very little (cause) and Despite the crowds, we saw everything (concession). The difference is in meaning, not grammatical form.
Although the museum was crowded, we saw everything.
Although the museum was crowded, we saw everything.
Although introduces a clause with a subject and verb.
Despite the crowds, we saw everything in the museum.
Despite the crowds, we saw everything in the museum.
The same meaning, but Despite takes a noun phrase.
Because of the crowds, we saw very little.
Because of the crowds, we saw very little.
Cause rather than concession: the result is expected.
Applying the pattern: turning a clause into a phrase
The procedure has three steps. First, find the clause expressing the obstacle: in a sentence with although, it is the part following the conjunction. Next, look at the subjects: if they match, the clause can be reduced to -ing without an explicit subject. If they differ, give -ing its own subject or use a noun or the fact that.
A noun sometimes provides the simplest expression, but does not always preserve the same emphasis. The closed shop names a shop that is closed, whereas the shop being closed highlights the circumstance of its being closed. Both versions are possible; choose for clarity.
The final check is always the same: no subject with a finite verb directly after the preposition (except with the fact that), no of after despite, and no bare verb.
Although the shop was closed, Lena found a gift.
Although the shop was closed, Lena found a gift.
The original clause after although.
Despite the closed shop, Lena found a gift.
Despite the closed shop, Lena found a gift.
The clause is reduced to a noun phrase.
Despite the shop being closed, Lena found a gift.
Despite the shop being closed, Lena found a gift.
The clause is reduced to -ing with its own subject because the subjects differ.
Common mistakes
Incorrect:Despite the train was late, we arrived on time.
Correct:Despite the train being late, we arrived on time.
Do not put the finite clause the train was late directly after despite. Use the train being late or the fact that the train was late.
Incorrect:Despite of the noise, she slept well.
Correct:Despite the noise, she slept well.
Despite is not used with of; of belongs only to in spite of.
Incorrect:In spite the cost, they bought a new car.
Correct:In spite of the cost, they bought a new car.
Of is required in in spite of: without it, the preposition is incomplete.
Incorrect:Despite to be tired, he kept working.
Correct:Despite being tired, he kept working.
After the preposition, the verb takes an -ing form, not a to-infinitive or bare form.
Incorrect:In despite of the delay, the flight left on time.
Correct:In spite of the delay, the flight left on time.
In neutral modern usage, use despite or in spite of. In despite of occurs as an archaic form and is not this lesson's pattern.
Incorrect:Despite working long hours, the report was never finished.
Correct:Despite working long hours, Dana never finished the report.
An -ing form without its own subject attaches to the main clause's subject; here, a person worked, not the report, so that person must be named as the subject.